Clement-Jones family 12/22 - Person Sheet
Clement-Jones family 12/22 - Person Sheet
NameThomas PELHAM-HOLLES 1st Duke of Newcastle , 12402
Birth1693
Death1768
MotherLady Grace HOLLES , 12434
Spouses
Notes for Thomas PELHAM-HOLLES 1st Duke of Newcastle
Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle upon Tyne and 1st Duke of Newcastle-under-Lyne, KG, PC (21 July 1693 – 17 November 1768) was a British Whig statesman, whose official life extended throughout the Whig supremacy of the 18th century. He is commonly known as the Duke of Newcastle.

A protégé of Sir Robert Walpole, he served under him for more than twenty years until 1742. He held power with his brother, Henry Pelham (the Prime Minister of Great Britain), until 1754. He had at this point served as a Secretary of State continuously for thirty years—dominating British foreign policy.

After Henry's death, the Duke would hold his late brother's position for six years (in two separate periods). While his first premiership was not particularly notable, Newcastle precipitated the Seven Years War, which would cause his resignation from his high position.[citation needed]After his second term as Prime Minister, he served for a short while in Lord Rockingham's ministry, before retiring from government.

[Early life


Thomas Pelham was born in London on 21 July 1693[2] the eldest son of Thomas Pelham, 1st Baron Pelham, by his second wife, the former Lady Grace Holles, younger sister of the John Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. He studied at Westminster School and was admitted a fellow-commoner at Clare College, Cambridge in 1710.[3] His uncle died in 1711, and his father the next year, both leaving their large estates to him. When he came of age in 1714, Lord Pelham was one of the greatest landowners in the kingdom, enjoying enormous patronage in the county of Sussex. One stipulation of his uncle in his inheritance, was that he add Holles to his name, which he faithfully did, thereafter styling himself as Thomas Pelham-Holles.[4] A long-standing legal dispute over the estate with his Aunt was finally settled in 1714.

He increasingly identified with Whig politics, like his father and uncle - but whereas they had been moderate in their views, he grew increasingly more partisan and militant in his views.[5] Britain at the time was very divided between Whigs who favoured the succession of George of Hanover after Queen Anne's death and Tories who supported the return of the Jacobite James Stuart, known later as the 'old pretender'. This issue dominated British politics during the last few years of Queen Anne's reign, leading up to her death in 1714 - and had a profound impact on the future career of the young Duke of Newcastle. He joined the Hannover Club and the Kit Kat Club, both leading centres of Whig thinking and organisation. Newcastle House in London became his premier residence.

Early political career

From 1720 Newcastle allied himself with Sir Robert Walpole. They would be political partners for the next twenty years, and Newcastle would remain a loyalist until Walpole's fall in 1742.

Newcastle vigorously sustained the Whigs at Queen Anne's death, and had much influence in making the Londoners accept King George I, even organising so-called 'Newcastle mobs' to fight with rival Jacobites in the street.

His services were too great to be neglected by the new Hanoverian King, and in 1714 he was created Earl of Clare, and in 1715 Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne two titles previously held by his late uncle John Holles. [7]He also became Lord-Lieutenant of the Counties of Middlesex and Nottingham and a Knight of the Garter. In his new position he was in charge of suppressing Jacobitism in the counties under his control. In Middlesex he arrested and questioned eight hundred people, and then drew up a Voluntary Defence Association to defend the county. During 1715 he became involved in a riot that ended with two men being killed, and Newcastle fleeing along rooftops.[8] The succession of George I was secured in late 1715 by the defeat of a Jacobite army at the Battle of Preston and the subsequent flight of the Old Pretender.

The victory of the Hanoverians over the Jacobites marked the beginning of the Whig Ascendancy which lasted for much of the 18th century. Because the Tory opposition had been tainted, in the eyes of George I, by their support of the Jacobite pretenders, he did not trust them, and drew all his ministers and officials from the Whig faction. Following their victory, the Whigs split with one group forming the government for George I, while the other dissident Whigs became the effective opposition in Parliament. After a period of political manoeuvring, during which time he was for a while associated with a Whig faction led by James Stanhope, from 1720 Newcastle began to identify strongly with the Government Whigs, who had quickly come to be dominated by Sir Robert Walpole.[

Walpole gladly welcomed the young Newcastle into his coterie, firstly because he believed he could easily control him, and secondly because it would strengthen his hand against the rival Whig factions.[11] Newcastle joined with Walpole because he, correctly, believed that he was going to dominate British politics for a generation.[citation needed] From 1721 Walpole began to serve as Britain's first official Prime Minister, a position he would hold for the next 21 years. He was related to Walpole's leading ally Charles Townshend, strengthening his bond with the leader of the new administration.

On 2 April 1717 he increased his Whig connections by marrying Lady Henrietta Godolphin the granddaughter of the Duke of Marlborough, a national hero following his victories in the recent European war and considered a Whig icon.

Lord Chamberlain

In 1717, at the age of twenty three, Newcastle first attained high political office as Lord Chamberlain of the Household, and was given the responsibility of overseeing theatres.[13] Plays at the time were often extremely political, and Newcastle was tasked with suppressing any plays or playwrights believed to be too critical of the Hanoverian succession or the Whig government. During this time Newcastle clashed repeatedly with a leading playwright Sir Richard Steele.[14] In 1719 he was one of the three main investors in George Frideric Handel's new opera company, the Royal Academy of Music (1719). The Duke ordered Handel in May 1719 to go to the continent and contract singers for as long as possible.

He held the post for seven years, and performed well enough to be considered for further promotion. Despite his youth, he had demonstrated his strength in several general elections when he had been able to get as many as twenty MPs elected to seats he controlled through his family's wealth and political patronage. He survived in the office during the turmoil in the Whig party between 1717 and 1721 and his switch of allegiance to Walpole secured his position thereafter. Walpole had overseen a brief end to the rift between the Whig factions, following the collapse of the South Sea Company which had left thousands ruined. Newcastle himself had lost £4,000 he had invested when the South Sea Bubble was at its height.[15] Following this Walpole was seen as the only man to steady both the country and the Whig Party, and was granted unprecedented powers, effectively making him the first Prime Minister of Great Britain.

During his time in the office, Newcastle and his wife had become famous for throwing lavish parties, which were attended by much of London society including many of his political opponents. He was also prodigiously fond of hunting and often went down to Bishopstone, one of his Sussex properties, expressly for this purpose.[16] During his time as Lord Chamberlain he oversaw a major overhaul of public buildings, many of which had fallen into very poor repair.[17]

Secretary of State

Appointment

In 1724 Newcastle was chosen by Sir Robert Walpole to be Secretary of State for the Southern Department in place of Lord Carteret, a move largely engineered by Townshend. He had been for some time considered the third most important man in the government behind Walpole and Townshend, and his new position confirmed this. Newcastle had for several years been growing increasingly interested in Foreign Affairs, and had been educating himself on the subtle ins-and-outs of diplomacy and the European State System. In spite of this, for the first few years in this office he deferred control of British foreign policy to the other Secretary of State, Townshend, and effectively served as his deputy. Walpole too was generally happy to allow Townshend to control foreign affairs, as he agreed with him on most issues.[citation needed]
[edit]The French Alliance

Main article: Anglo-French Alliance

Since the Treaty of Utrecht which had ended the last major European war, Britain had been an ally of France - a strong reversal in policy, as France had previously been considered the premier enemy of Britain.[18] The reasons for the alliance were complex, and many had doubted the détente could last long, but by the time Newcastle became Secretary of State they had been allies for nearly a decade. By 1719 they had become part of a wider Quadruple Alliance, which was overwhelmingly the most powerful force in European politics. This had been demonstrated during the War of the Quadruple Alliance, a largely naval war in the Mediterranean by which the powers had defeated a Spanish attempt to reclaim lost territory in Italy.[19] The alliance was unpopular, however, with many in parliament and in the country who continued to consider France Britain's natural enemy.



Newcastle had been joined in government by his young brother Henry Pelham. The two brothers got on well, although they were prone to have intractable disputes. One constant source of tension between them was Newcastle's poor handling of the family fortune, which was being constantly depleted through his out of control spending. Pelham was also considered by many to be the abler of the two brothers, but it was the Duke who had got initially further in politics. In spite of their differences, they remained firm political allies.

Domestic crisis

The Administration faced a crisis in 1727 when George I died unexpectedly and his son George II succeeded to the throne.[20] The new King had previously had exceptionally bad relations with Walpole and Newcastle and during one altercation between them George's poor English had made Newcastle think he had challenged him to a duel.[21] Their relationship had not improved in recent years, and many anticipated the imminent replacement of the government. Instead Walpole made himself extremely useful to George II, who soon became convinced of his competence and retained him in his post. The thawing of relations was helped by the friendship between Newcastle and George's daughter Amelia leading many to speculate, without substantive evidence, that they were having an affair.[22] By November 1727 Walpole and Newcastle's positions were both safe once more, boosted by an election victory which saw them gain 430 seats to the opposition's 128 in the House of Commons.[23]

In 1729 a rift broke out in the government over the direction of Britain's foreign policy. Townshend was convinced that Britain's principal enemy was now Austria.[24] Walpole and Newcastle saw Spain as the main threat to British power, because of their large navy and colonial interests. Eventually Walpole had his way, forcing Townshend from office, and replacing him with Lord Harrington. From then on Newcastle served as the senior Secretary of State, and largely controlled British foreign policy himself. Newcastle was saddened by the demise of his relative and former patron, although their partnership had become increasingly strained and the new situation offered enormous possibilities to him personally.[25]

[edit]Peace policy

Together Newcastle and Walpole managed to drive a wedge between Spain and Austria, making an ally of the latter, and directing their future efforts against Spain. Subsequently, however, it turned out that Britain's long-term major rival was neither of the two but France, which had been considered a close ally up to that point. The increasingly confrontational actions of the French Prime Minister Cardinal Fleury soon convinced them that they had been wrong.[26] This misjudgment was later used by the Patriot Whigs to castigate the Ministry for their lack of preparation against the French threat.


King George II who reigned from 1727 to 1760. Despite their initial violent hatred of each other, he and Newcastle grew to have a very productive relationship which lasted for over three decades.

In general, Newcastle shared Walpole's abhorrence of war, and wished to prevent Britain getting dragged in to major wars on the continent. Notably Britain did not become embroiled in the War of the Polish Succession, and indeed tried to prevent it from breaking out. Newcastle attempted to throw both the French and Austrians off-guard by being cagey about Britain's response should any war break out, but this did not stop the conflict.[27] Once the war had started, George II tried to push for Britain to honour its commitment to assist Austria, but he was blocked by Walpole who insisted Britain should not join the war. Newcastle broadly supported the same position as the King, but he accepted the decision.[28]

By this stage Newcastle's brother Henry Pelham had attained the lucrative position of Paymaster General, and had effectively replaced Townshend as the third man of the government. The three men continued what had become dubbed as the Norfolk Congress by meeting regularly at Houghton Hall, Sir Robert Walpole's country house in Norfolk. The three men would hold private meetings, draw up wide-ranging policies on foreign and domestic issues, and then present them to parliament for their seal of approval, which their vast majority allowed them to do. Slowly, however, Newcastle and his brother were moving out of the shadow of Walpole, and being more assertive. Newcastle was particularly annoyed by what he saw as the abandonment of Austria, and by the suggestion that Walpole no longer trusted him.[29]

By 1735 Newcastle had largely assumed control of colonial affairs, further increasing the amount of patronage he controlled. A devout Anglican, he was also given control over ecclesiastical matters. His growing independence from Walpole, was helped by the support of his brother and his best friend, Hardwicke, who had become Lord Chancellor.[30] During the latter half of the decade his job was increasingly dominated by managing relations with Spain, which included trade disputes and objections to the controversial founding of the British colony of Georgia in 1733. Because of this the long-standing peace policy was beginning to look extremely fragile. He also acted as a mediator in the War of the Polish Succession, helping to bring the conflict to an end in 1738.

Jenkin's Ear and Spanish America

Main article: War of Jenkin's Ear

The growing tension between Britain and Spain came to a head in 1731 during an incident known as Jenkin's Ear, when a British merchant captain was captured for illegal trading off the coast of Cuba by a Spanish privateer, and in punishment for his alleged breach of the strict laws forbidding foreign commerce with Spanish colonies, he had an ear cut off.[31] The incident shocked Britain, not so much because of its brutality, but because many saw it as an outrage that Spain should have the temerity to harm a British subject simply for trading—which many held to be a legitimate occupation.

In 1738 Jenkins appeared in parliament to testify about his treatment. Other merchants sent petitions, and the powerful South Sea Company mobilised popular opinion. To many the Spanish Empire was crumbling, and its South American possessions were ripe for the picking. A vociferous group in parliament demanded war with Spain. Walpole was adamantly opposed to such a policy, and became a target for unprecedented attacks.[33] Newcastle too came under intense pressure, though he initially considered the demands that Britain declare war with Spain a dangerous step and in spite of his increasingly bellicose statements, he still considered the idea of an Anglo-Spanish alliance as late as 1739. He tried to negotiate a solution to the crisis with the Convention of Pardo, which agreed a sum of compensation to be paid to British merchants[34] but British public opinion had shifted and Walpole felt that there was no option but to declare war in December 1739.


Newcastle enjoyed a close but at times strained relationship with his brother Henry Pelham. The two men formed a formidable political partnership following the fall of Walpole, and together dominated British politics until Henry's death in 1754.

The British opened the war with a victory, capturing Porto Bello in Panama. This led to an outbreak of patriotic fervour, and further increased the pressure on Walpole and Newcastle for their perceived unwilling prosecution of the war.[35] Newcastle tried to combat this by cultivating a reputation as the leading "patriot" of the cabinet. He took on additional military responsibilities and, for the first two years of war, served as a de facto Minister of War.[36] One of his most notable suggestions during the period was the recruitment of large numbers of troops drawn from the American colonies, whose growing manpower had previously gone largely untapped.

In 1741 the main British campaign against Spain was a combined amphibious attack on the South American city of Cartagena, which had experienced considerable delays. Command was awarded to Admiral Edward Vernon, the victor of Porto Bello, who was given a force of 31,000 soldiers and sailors to take the city. The siege proved to be a total disaster for the British, who lost thousands of men before being forced to withdraw. Although Newcastle had issued the orders, and had overseen the organisation of the expedition, much of the blame for the disaster fell on the shoulders of the ailing Prime Minister, Sir Robert Walpole.

Fall of Walpole

In the wake of the Cartagena disaster, Britain held a general election. The result reduced Walpole's former dominance of the House to a now unworkable majority. Within months he had been forced out of office, and succeeded by Lord Wilmington. Though he stayed with Walpole to the end, Newcastle was later accused by many of Walpole's supporters of undermining him.[37] Horace Walpole, his son, continued to attack his behaviour for years to come.

Newcastle continued in office after Walpole's fall and became more powerful on his younger brother Henry Pelham becoming Prime Minister in 1743. Together the two brothers and their supporters known as the 'Old Whigs' made a coalition with the 'New Whigs', previous opponents of the Walpole government. In spite of this there remained a strident opposition, led vocally by men like William Pitt and Lord Sandwich.

[edit]War of the Austrian Succession

Main article: War of the Austrian Succession

Newcastle was a strong supporter of Austria, and advocated aid to the country during the War of the Austrian Succession. After the war he built his system for retaining peace around the alliance with Austria, only for it to collapse spectacularly in 1756.

In 1740 a short while after the declaration of war with Spain, a separate war had broken out simultaneously in Europe, into which the War of Jenkins' Ear soon became submerged. In a dispute over the throne of the Austrian Empire, France and Prussia had invaded Austria, planning to remove Empress Maria Theresa and replace her with their own claimant. Austria's long-standing alliance with Britain required them to declare war. It was also considered by many that a French victory would leave them too strong in Europe. Because of this, Britain soon found itself dragged into this wider war despite the reluctance of the government.

Initially Britain's involvement was limited to financial subsidies and diplomacy in support of Austria, By 1742 it was apparent that a more substantial commitment would be needed, if the alliance wasn't to end in defeat. The same year 16,000 British troops were sent to the continent. Newcastle was a staunch Austrophile[39] and strongly supported aid to the Austrians. He had long conceived the only way Britain could defeat France was in alliance with Austria, a view sharply at odds with many other leading thinkers of the era, including Walpole and Pitt.

Newcastle's position had briefly been threatened by Carteret, a royal favourite, but by 1743 he and his brother were firmly in control of British policy—a position that would last until 1756. He now set about drawing up a fresh scheme to enhance British power on the continent. This included an attempt to persuade the Dutch Republic into the anti-French alliance, and mediating the dispute between Austria and Prussia that led to the Treaty of Dresden in 1745. He also approved plans for a colonial raid against Louisbourg in 1745, which was successful. Along with the defeat of a Spanish Invasion of Georgia in 1742, this strengthened the British position in North America.

Jacobite Rising

Main article: Jacobite Rising

In 1745 the Jacobite Rising broke out in Scotland, and had soon spread to northern England. Newcastle feared both an attack from the north by Bonnie Prince Charlie who had gathered 5,000 men in Derby and a French invasion of southern England. In the panic a number of false rumours circulated around London, including news that Newcastle had fled to the continent fearing all was lost. He was forced to show himself to a crowd that had gathered outside Newcastle House, to prove he was still there.[40] Nonetheless his position was threatened, if the Jacobites were triumphant his estates would likely have been confiscated and he would have been forced into exile.

Newcastle awoke to the threat posed by the Jacobites, much faster than George II or many of his colleagues who dismissed the rebellion as a farce, and organised a response. By late 1745 he had rallied all the southern militias and regular forces, and the Jacobites withdrew to northern Scotland where they were defeated at Culloden in 1746.

[edit]Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle

Main article: Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)

On the Continent the British continued the war effort, but they were now under pressure from the Dutch Republic to make peace with the French. The Dutch feared that the French were about launch a devastating onslaught to overrun their country. Newcastle considered that any peace that would be made at that time would be extremely disadvantageous to Britain, and he tried to keep the anti-French coalition strong through constant diplomacy and offers of financial subsidies.

Talks for a peace settlement were convened in the city of Breda in 1746. Newcastle was instrumental in securing the appointment of Lord Sandwich as the British representative at the talks, as his views were very close to his own.[41] Sandwich's instructions were principally to delay the talks, until a significant British victory allowed them to negotiate from a position of strength. The Congress of Breda did not progress well initially, because the participants were not yet fully committed to peace. The Allies continued to do badly, suffering severe defeats at Bergen op Zoom and Lauffeld. Newcastle's brother, Henry, was now strongly advocating peace, but Newcastle firmly rejected this—still convinced a major Allied victory was imminent.

In 1747 Newcastle was involved in organising a coup to put the Prince of Orange in power in the Netherlands. Orange was more hard-line and wanted to continue the war with the French. However, he soon had to apply to the British for a massive loan,[42] and Newcastle became aware how close the Dutch were to collapsing altogether. He reluctantly turned towards seeking a peace accommodation with France. He berated himself for his "ignorance, obstinacy and credulity" and half expected his misjudgment in putting so much faith in the Dutch to result in his dismissal,[43] but both the King and the rest of the cabinet retained their faith in him.

To better oversee the peace settlement, Newcastle switched across to the position of Northern Secretary. He secured Sandwich's promotion to the Admiralty although he had wanted him to succeed him as Southern Secretary.[44] During the summer of 1748 Newcastle made his first ever trip outside Britain when he visited Hanover, and was received with a rapturous reception wherever he went.[45] When the talks got under way they went far more smoothly and in October 1748 the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was formally concluded. Britain would give back Louisbourg to France in exchange for the return of Madras and a full French withdrawal from the Low Countries. The issue of free trade for which Britain had gone to war with Spain in 1739 was not mentioned at all.[46]

Newcastle was immediately attacked by his opponents for giving up Louisbourg, but many of them failed to realise just how weak the British position on the Continent had become.[47] Austria was also deeply unhappy as they felt the British had abandoned them, and hadn't pushed hard enough for Silesia to be returned to them.[48] Nonetheless Newcastle was happy with the terms that had been gained, and observers on the continent were full of praise about the way he had overturned so apparently a disadvantageous situation.

[edit]Newcastle's System

Following the peace, Newcastle began to put in practice a policy he had been developing for a very long time. He believed that the stately quadrille, which had seen states continually shifting alliances, had been unstable and led to repeated wars. He instead wanted to use vigorous diplomacy to create a lasting peace, built around a strong and stable British alliance with Austria. Like many Whigs he saw maintaining the European Balance of Power as essential. He described this process as 'restoring the Old System', but it was popularly known as the Newcastle System.[citation needed]

He came under continuous attack from Pitt and the Patriot Whigs who despised his European policy, pointing to their belief that the previous war had shown that increasingly North America was the most important theatre of war. They mocked Newcastle for his perceived lack of vision, ignoring the complex nature of European politics and Britain's relationship with Hanover and the fact that as early as 1740 Newcastle had been aware of the expanding power of the American colonies.

Newcastle remained extremely attentive to the Austrian Alliance. He spent several years trying to secure the election of Maria Theresa's son, the future Emperor Joseph II, as King of the Romans, a title of the Holy Roman Empire that carried enormous prestige but little real power—only to see this scheme fail because of Austrian indifference. During these years there were a number of warning signs that all was not well with the alliance, but Newcastle ignored most of them—convinced that neither Austria or Britain had any other serious potential allies to turn to. Referring to the election, Newcastle believed that if his scheme failed "France and Prussia will dictate to all the world".[49] He managed to broker a compromise at a Congress of Hanover whereby he had secured the election of Joseph. His triumph at the Congress were soon undermined by his failure to secure Austrian backing.
During these years he managed to successfully outmanoeuvre the Duke of Bedford, engineering his resignation and the dismissal of Lord Sandwich who Newcastle had now begun to consider a dangerously ambitious rival. The ease with which he did this demonstrated his total control of British politics, as Bedford led a strong faction. He had, however, made a significant enemy who would later try to undermine Newcastle.

In 1752 he made a rare trip abroad, accompanying George II on his annual trip to Hanover. During the visit, Newcastle made an attempt to cultivate Lord North, a future Prime Minister, as an ally into his political faction.[50] He was unsuccessful although the two became good friends, and North later spoke out in defence of Newcastle.

On Henry Pelham's death in 6 March 1754, Newcastle succeeded him as Prime Minister. He had initially hoped to stay in his role as Northern Secretary as he much preferred foreign affairs, but he was persuaded there was no other serious candidate and accepted the seals of office from the King in March.[51]

[edit]Prime Minister – first term



Henry Fox, 1st Baron Holland, by John Giles Eccardt, after Jean Baptiste van Loo, ca. 1740
Newcastle's first task was to select someone to represent the government in the Commons. To great surprise he rejected the favourites William Pitt and Henry Fox, and chose Sir Thomas Robinson—who had barely even been considered a candidate by most.[52] Newcastle was largely instrumental in appointing men considered slightly weakerЬ so that he could dominate them. Both Pitt and Fox bore a grudge over this perceived slight, and stepped up their attacks on the Ministry.

During 1754 Newcastle oversaw a general election, largely adopting the electoral strategy drawn up by his brother, and winning a large majority. His own personal ability to have MPs elected on his slate reached new heights.[53] He now felt emboldened enough to try and push through some financial reforms. He proposed measures to reduce the amount of interest paid to the Bank of England on the National Debt. His decision to do so may partly have been to deflect criticism that he was not sufficiently qualified on financial matters to control the Treasury.[54] At the same time he was still largely directing foreign policy and that was where his main emphasis was.

America

Main article: French and Indian War

The rivalry between Britain and France in North America had been growing for some time. Both coveted the Ohio Country which offered enormous potential for a new wealthy colony to be founded. Both nations sent military forces to occupy the territory. While the British set up the first initial post, they were driven out by a French expedition in 1754. Many wealthy Americans agitated for military action, but the preparations of the individual colonies for conflict were poor. There was pressure in London too from Patriot Whigs who felt the time was ripe for British America to expand into the interior.

For 1755 a major expedition was planned against the French in America. A force of British regulars would be sent to seize Ohio, while another of New England provincials would take control of Nova Scotia. A new Commander in Chief Edward Braddock would be appointed to oversee this, taking over from the fractious efforts of the colonial assemblies. The architect of this scheme was the Duke of Cumberland, who held enormous political sway at the time. Braddock was a favourite of his, though Newcastle had his doubts about both Braddock and the plans. Newcastle had temporary made an alliance with Henry Fox, who he also disliked. Fox was a strong supporter of the campaign, forcing Newcastle's hand.[citation needed]

A few months after arriving in America, Braddock's force was engulfed by disaster at the Battle of Monongahela. Attacked by a mixed force of French and American Natives in the wilderness, more than half were killed, including Braddock. The remainder retreated back to Philadelphia, leaving the French in full control of the interior.[55] The Nova Scotia scheme had been more successful, but the Great Expulsion that had followed in its wake had created a large amount of problems for Newcastle.
All these events had taken place without war being formally declared. With the decline in the American situation, Newcastle was forced to abandon his plans for financial reform, as the money would instead need to be spent on military forces.

[edit]Loss of Minorca

Main article: Seven Years War

William Pitt was the leader of the Patriot Whigs, and a constant thorn in Newcastle's side. Many were surprised when the two formed an electoral partnership in 1757.

While Newcastle had been paying attention to the American campaign, more pressing events in Europe demanded his attention. Austria had been growing increasingly wary, feeding into a long-standing belief that the British would abandon them when it came to crucial moments.[56] Newcastle's worst fears were confirmed in 1756 when Austria concluded an alliance with France (Diplomatic Revolution) suddenly throwing the whole balance of power in Europe askew.

Newcastle had hoped to prevent the outbreak of a major war in Europe by encircling France with hostile powers. He believed this would both deter them from attacking their neighbours and from sending reinforcements to North America.[57] He thought that the only way war could happen now was if Frederick the Great unilaterally attacked Austria which, given the clear disparity in numbers, he would be a "madman" to do.[58] Newcastle hoped he had managed to avert war in Europe, but in 1756 Frederick invaded Saxony and Bohemia triggering the major European war Newcastle had feared and failed to prevent. What had begun as a limited war in the Ohio country between Britain and France now took on global proportions.

Newcastle was widely blamed for Britain's poor start to the Seven Years War and in November 1756 he was replaced by the Duke of Devonshire. Some had even called for his execution following the loss of Minorca in 1756.[59] Instead the commander of the British fleet John Byng was shot after a court-martial, which many considered a smoke screen to protect Newcastle.

For his long services he was created Duke of Newcastle-under-Lyne, with remainder to the 9th Earl of Lincoln, who had married his niece Catherine Pelham.
Last Modified 27 Apr 2013Created 4 Mar 2023 using Reunion for Macintosh